9.2 Weather Hazards

Incredible Pilot Skills Severe Windshear

"Tower, Snake 91, wind shear, 25 knots, one-mile final." 

"Snake 91, copy. Gain or Loss?"

"Loss." 

The first time I heard a pilot report wind shear, I had to dig into my brain to remember what the FAA Joint Order 7110.65 said about wind shear. I went off memory when I asked the pilot if it was a gain or a loss. I knew to broadcast it to the other flights arriving and departing, and that we would broadcast it on the ATIS. But what was that brief back and forth really about? 

Imagine a pilot on final approach to land. They are at 300 feet, descending to the runway. Suddenly, a downdraft pushes the aircraft's nose rapidly towards the runway. The pilot doesn't have enough altitude to recover and regain the altitude they've lost. They now find themselves much lower than they can recover from, and short of runway, to boot. 

Wind shear is a dangerous weather occurrence that pilots can experience in the air. It is a sudden change in wind speed and/or direction, an anomaly from the overall reported wind. Wind shear happens suddenly, with no visible warnings. What makes wind shear hazardous is its proximity to the ground. Without warning, wind shear can cause an aircraft's altitude to change (FAA, 2016). 

Wind shear can be caused by four reasons: weather fronts, thunderstorms, temperature inversions, and surface obstructions (FAA, 2008). The reason wind shear is reported in a gain/loss is that other pilots know if the reporting pilot gained or lost airspeed. Currently, pilots combat wind shear by reporting it when they experience it to to ATC. ATC can then relay the report to other aircraft. 

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References

Aviation Channel 2010. [Username]. (2014, October 23). Incredible Pilot Skills Severe Windshear || Dangerous Landing during a Storm [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MfGVkaDVu34

Department of Transportation. (2008). Wind Shear. Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faasafety.gov/files/gslac/library/documents/2011/Aug/56407/FAA%20P-8740-40%20WindShear%5Bhi-res%5D%20branded.pdf

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/

Air Traffic Control Entities

 

Tower: Ground control and Local control 

Ground control and Tower control each have specific duties to ensure separation and an expeditious flow of air traffic. Per the FAA Joint Order 7110.65, Ground control's position is responsible for control of movement areas by taxiing aircraft or other vehicles. Movement areas include taxiways and ramps not under Local control (FAA, 2020). Like Local control, Ground control has its own phraseology for allowing or prohibiting aircraft and vehicles to maneuver on the movement area(s). 

Local control is air traffic, ensuring positive separation in the entire airspace - including runways. With both arrivals and departures, Local control ensures proper sequencing and spacing for aircraft. On departure, Local controllers provide departure information including runway in use, wind direction and speed, and altimeter setting if the pilot did not previously affirm the correct ATIS code. Upon arrival Local control's responsibility is to clear an aircraft for landing - by providing a safe and expeditious flow of air traffic, once again providing the runway in use, wind, and landing clearance (FAA, 2020). An example of a Local controller's landing clearance could be, "Mace 11, runway 32, wind two-eight-zero at four, cleared to land." This provides the pilot assurance that the runway is cleared for his or her arrival, and additional information to assist in landing. 

Ground control and Local control work closely together and communication between the two is critical. According to the FAA 7110.65, chapter 2, section 10, paragraph 3, both Local control and Ground control share many of the same responsibilities, including ensuring separation, initiating control instructions, monitoring communications equipment, ensuring proper strip marking is completed, and scanning the tower cab environment for anomalies, maintaining situational awareness. The Tower Team Concept Intent states there is no absolute division of responsibilities in the tower cab - everyone is equally responsible for ensuring safety at that facility (FAA, 2020).  

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Reference

Department of Transportation. (2020, December 31). FAA Order JO 7110.65Y - Air Traffic Control. https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/

Blog 7.2 The Airport and the Environment

"The number of people exposed to significant airport noise in the United States has decreased from 7 million people in 1975 to approximately 309,000 people in 2012" (FAA, 2015). Noise is the most concerning environmental factor surrounding airports and their environmental impact on those who live nearby. Sleep is one of the most important human needs. A lack of sleep, or sleep disturbances can cause us to function improperly and act in hazardous ways. "Regular poor sleep puts you at risk of serious medical conditions, including obesity, heart disease and diabetes – and it shortens your life expectancy" (NHS, 2018). Too much noise pollution from airports can be detrimental to those living nearby. 

With the increase in air traffic starting in the 1970s, there have been several programs aimed at reducing the level of noise within the areas surrounding airports (Visser, 2008). The FAA's Airport Noise Program addresses these concerns by developing Part 150. Part 150 is a volunteer, collaborative program that began in 1981 (FAA, 2015). This program is a collaborative effort between the airport personnel and the surrounding communities. Its purpose is to work together to identify and mitigate noise pollution problems, hearing issues from everyone involved. The community's feedback is necessary for Part 150 to be successful. Hearing input allows the best decisions to be made between airports and the public. Additionally, Part 150 provides grant funding through the Airport Improvement Program (AIP), if the airport matches the grant from the FAA. Although this has been a successful program by the Federal Government, airports and communities are not require to use Part 150 for noise abatement. Some airports work directly with community leaders to ensure noise abatement is a priority. (FAA, 2015).

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References

Federal Aviation Administration. (2015, January 13). Fact Sheet – The FAA Airport Noise Program. Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=18114

National Health Service, United Kingdom. (2018, May 30). Why lack of sleep is bad for your health. NHS. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/sleep-and-tiredness/why-lack-of-sleep-is-bad-for-your-health/

Visser, H., & Wijnen, R. (2008). Management of the environmental impact at airport operations. ProQuest Ebook Central https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu

6.2 Legislative Acts

     

    In 1958, Congress enacted the Federal Aviation Act, which would eventually become the organization known as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA, 2017). The FAA's mission is "provide the safest, most efficient aerospace system in the world" (FAA, 2019). The creation of the FAA was arguably the most important safety measure taken for United States aviation and progress.

    Before the creation of the FAA, aviation was disorganized, especially in its early years. In 1926 the Air Commerce Act was passed (FAA, 2017). These early years did its best to regulate and provide safer measures for aircraft. Technology and progress allowed us to commercialize air travel and also for courier transportation. More and more aircraft were taking to the skies without any rules or regulations. Soon after, rudimentary air traffic control was developed. A more organized sky was on the horizon. Over the next generation these measures would come together to form what the FAA encompasses today. 

    Today, the FAA is no less than critical to maintaining safe aviation in the United States. Its many functions include flight safety regulations, air traffic regulations, pilot licensing, medical research, training, publications, and developing the airspace system (Federal Aviation Act, 1958). It hosts a vast number of research and initiatives designed to provide a safer airspace system for those operating in it. Without the FAA, we would have a disorganized airspace with fewer regulations for pilots and air traffic controllers. Maintaining these regulations, and growing with aviation technology allows us to remain on the forefront of aviation safety. The FAA is the centralized resource for all of these matters. 

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References

Federal Aviation Act of 1958, Public Law 85-726; 72 Stat. 737 49 U.S.C. App. 1301 et seq. (1958). http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/books-online/Aviationlawpt1.pdf

Federal Aviation Administration. (2017, January 4). A Brief History of the FAA. Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faa.gov/about/history/brief_history/#birth    

Federal Aviation Administration. (2019, November 5). FAA Mission. Department of Transportation. https://www.faa.gov/about/mission/

5.3 Team-Based Human Factors

    

    Human factors in aviation encompasses all of the possible ways humans can cause an aircraft operation to be unsafe. It takes more than one human to produce a safe flight. Understanding this, it is arguable that it takes more than one human to produce an unsafe flight. “Human factors are issues affecting how people do their jobs. They are the social and personal skills, such as communication and decision making which complement our technical skills. These are important for safe and efficient aviation” (Civil Aviation Safety Authority, 2020).

    In air traffic control, there is a system in place to counterbalance human factors. We call it Crew Resource Management. This concept acknowledges that human factors in aviation do occur. This is why we have different positions, with different responsibilities in each position. In addition to being responsible for our own positions, we are also responsible for looking out for potential problems, whether it is our position’s responsibility or not. With all of the air and ground traffic, it would be nearly impossible for the human brain to keep up with everything and make good, safe decisions. This is why we have Crew Resource management. 

    “CRM encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills and attitudes including communications, loss of situational awareness, problem solving, decision making, and teamwork; together with all the attendant sub-disciplines which each of these areas entails” (Skybrary, 2020). The most important aspects of being a controller, other than the knowledge base, are situational awareness, checklists, and communication. Being situationally aware of the aircraft, vehicles, potential conflicts in the air and on the ground, and any anomalies are all part of situational awareness. Checklists are crucial to maintain the same level of safety each time, for each situation. Communication is critical because it offers another level of protection against unsafe situations. For example, when we raise the cable for incoming flights, we communicate with other controllers, “cable coming up,” and then mark it on a flight strip once observed in the raised position. Because of the checklists and communication, everyone in the tower cab is aware that the cable is raised for inbound aircraft. There is no second guessing at the last second when it comes to safety. Crew resource management is air traffic’s answer to combating safety and human factors in aviation. 

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Resources

Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority. (2020, March 3). Human factors. Civil Aviation Safety Authority. https://www.casa.gov.au/safety-management/human-factors

Skybrary. (2020 March 21). Crew Resource Management. Skybrary. https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Crew_Resource_Management_(CRM)

4.3 Aviation Security

Throughout the years, we've seen an evolution of explosive devices that have changed and become smaller, harder to detect, and made with different materials. While there are many known explosives that the TSA screens for, how are we to look for the unknown ones? 

The TSA is more than the people in blue uniforms that you have to account for when scheduling your airport arrival time. The TSA provides security through twenty different layers to protect travelers (TSA, 2017). It is made up of agents as well as other agencies and groups working behind the scenes to ensure the safest public transportation possible. Explosive devices are met with several layers of security to get through, including trained canines, Transportation Security Inspectors, Transportation Security Specialists-Explosives, and a hardened cockpit door. While these levels of security do mitigate potential situations involving explosives, there is still an opportunity for newer explosives to go by undetected by the status quo. The TSA could benefit from having a dedicated team of professionals who are proactive in identifying new types of explosive devices, and screening for them. Remaining on the forefront of this technology could prevent damage from a new, uncommon type of explosive not currently screened for. 

References 

Burns, B. (2017, August 1). Inside Look: TSA Layers of Security. TSA. https://www.tsa.gov/blog/2017/08/01/inside-look-tsa-layers-security

Landing Gear Systems

Landing Gear Systems fall into two categories: fixed or retractable. In a fixed landing gear system, the aircraft's gears remain down and locked in position to take off and land at all times. It is beneficial because of ease of use for pilots and the small amount of maintenance for upkeep and operations. The retractable aircraft landing gear is different because it rises into the body of the aircraft after takeoff using a hydraulic pump. Before landing the same hydraulic system is used to lower the gear into position (PHAK, 2016). The retractable landing gear benefits aircraft because it is more aerodynamic, however it also introduces potential safety hazards when the hydraulic systems do not function as intended (Special VFR, 2016). 

There are several safety measures taken to accompany a hydraulically-dependent landing gear. These retractable landing gear aircraft are supplied with circuitry to prevent the landing gear from collapsing while on the ground, alternative systems to extend the gear such as a manual crank in the cockpit, and a maximum airspeed to manually operate the landing gear (Berry, 2016). Additionally, aircraft are equipped with a warning system built in to alert pilots when the gear is not extended or retracted fully (Berry, 2019). Without a landing gear, aircraft would land on the belly of the aircraft, which is not built to withstand much impact from the ground. Much damage to aircraft and occupants can happen when the landing gear is not operational. 

If there is not proper maintenance on hydraulic fluid levels and landing gear systems, many aspects of flight, including taking off and landing, can be adversely affected. Additionally, if there is a leak in the hydraulic system, fluid levels can decrease rapidly, sometimes without notice. Thorough checklists can better ensure safe hydraulic levels for the aircraft's landing gear system, and proper electrical operations for the landing gear warning systems can offset the safety hazards associated with retractable landing gears. 

References

Berry, M. (2019, April). Retractable Gear Systems: Even well-maintained systems can leave you sitting in the middle of the runway. Aviation Safety, 39(4), 8+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A581680847/AONE?u=embry&sid=AONE&xid=bf22e604

Federal Aviation Administration. “Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK),” 2016. Retrieved https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/.

Smith, P. (2016, September, 09). Aircraft Systems - 04 - Landing Gear [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=skv6CgCY3vM&list=PLzW-Ub1FWeZzdOHQhNK0U0Ci1a-VRH8IO&index=35

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